June 2009

Extreme Motorcycle : Dodge Tomahawk

The Dodge Tomahawk is an 8200cc Monster Motorbike. It’s like riding a 2-wheeled Train Engine.

ENGINE

500 bhp (372 kW) @ 5600 rpm (60.4 bhp/liter); 525 lb.-ft. (712 Nm) @ 4200 rpm
10-cylinder 90-degree V-type, liquid-cooled, 505 cubic inches (8277 cc)
356-T6 aluminum alloy block with cast-iron liners, aluminum alloy cylinder heads
Bore x Stroke: 4.03 inches x 3.96 inches (102.4 x 100.6)
Two pushrod-actuated overhead valves per cylinder with roller-type hydraulic lifters 6.
Sequential, multi-port electronic fuel injection with individual runners
Compression Ratio: 9.6:1
Max Engine Speed: 6000 rpm
Fuel Requirement: Unleaded premium, 93 octane (R+M/2)
Oil System: Dry Sump; takes 8 quarts Mobil1 10W30 Synthetic
Cooling System: Twin aluminum radiators mounted atop engine intake manifolds, force-fed from front-mounted, belt-driven turbine fan.
Takes 11 quarts of antifreeze.
Exhaust System: Equal-length tubular stainless steel headers with dual collectors and central rear outlets.

SUSPENSION

Front :
Outboard, single-sided parallel upper and lower control arms made from polished billet aluminum. Mounted via ball joint to aluminum steering uprights and hubs. Five degrees caster. Single, fully adjustable centrally located coil-over damper ( 2.25-inch coil with adjustable spring perch); pullrod and rocker-actuated mono linkage. Center-lock racing-style hubs.
Rear :
Hand-fabricated box-section steel inboard swing arms, incorporating “hydral-link” lockable recirculating hydraulic circuit parking stand. Single fully adjustable centrally located Koni coil-over damper ( 2.25-inch coil with adjustable spring perch); pushrod and rocker-actuated mono linkage. Center-lock racing-style hubs.

BRAKES

Front :
20-inch perimeter-mounted drilled machined stainless steel rotors, one per wheel. Two four-piston fixed aluminum calipers per wheel (16 pistons total), custom designed. Blue anodized caliper finish. Hand-activated.
Rear :
20-inch perimeter-mounted drilled cast-iron rotors, one per wheel. One four-piston fixed aluminum caliper per wheel (8 pistons total), custom designed. Blue anodized caliper finish. Foot-activated.

The Tomahawk is a Viper V-10 based motorcycle, a 500 horsepower engine with four wheels beneath it.
Chrysler will be selling the original Tomahawk concept and nine replicas through Neiman Marcus, for up to $555,000 each. The motorcycles cannot be licensed, so they cannot be legally driven on public roads. A Chrysler spokesman told Reuters they were meant as rolling sculptures.

Rumors had the Tomahawk selling for under $200,000, most likely at a loss or breakeven price, for publicity purposes - but still fully drivable. Wolfgang Bernhard, Chrysler’s not particularly respected first mate, was said to be enthusiastic about that project, so much so that hundreds were projected to be built at under $200,000 each. They reportedly cost Chrysler over $100,000 to build (admittedly the work is outsourced).

The Dodge Tomahawk can reach 60 miles an hour in about 2.5 seconds, and has a theoretical top speed of nearly 400 mph. Each pair of wheels is separated by a few inches and each wheel has an independent suspension. Bernhard said four wheels were necessary to handle the power from the engine.

The Tomahawk remains on display at auto shows - though well out of reach of the general public, elevated on a special display.

PERFORMANCE

0-60 mph: 2.5 seconds (est.)
Top Speed: 300+ mph (est.)

DIMENSIONS

Length: 102 inches
Width: 27.7 inches
Height: 36.9 inches
Wheelbase: 76 inches
Seat Height: 29 inches
Weight: 1,500 lbs.
Track, Front: 8.75 in
Track, Rear: 10 in
Weight Dist: 49F/51R
Ground Clearance: 3 in
Fuel: 3.25 gallons

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Alternator: 136-amp high-speed

Battery : Leak-resistant, maintenance-free 600 CCALighting: Headlights consist of 12 five-watt LEDs, front, with beam-modifying optics and masked lenses.

Eight LEDs, rear. Headlamps articulate with wheels.

TRANSMISSION

Manual, foot-shifted two-speed
Aluminum-cased two-speed, sequential racing-style with dog ring, straight-cut gears
Gear Ratios: 1st 18:38; 2nd 23:25Clutch: Double-disc, dry-plate with organic friction materials, hand lever actuated with assistFinal drive: Dual 110-link motorcycle-style chains
Front Sprockets: 14 teethRear Sprockets: 35 teeth
Longitudinal, centrally mounted engine, rear-wheel drive layout; monocoque construction, engine is central, stressed member. Body of billet aluminum.

Making Biodiesel From Waste Vegetable Oil

What is Biodiesel?

Biodiesel is a fuel derived from a process known as transesterification whereby the oils produced by oliferous plants (typically in the UK we are talking about rapeseed or sunflower oil as the major sustainable sources) are combined under the correct conditions with a methoxide catalyst to cause separation of the oil into usable fuel oil and glycerol by-product.

In layman's terms, transesterification can be thought of as the process of converting one ester into another ester. An ester is a chemical combination of fatty acids attached to alcohol. Animal and vegetable fats, oils and biodiesel are examples of esters.

If both vegetable oil and biodiesel are esters, why is it not practical to use vegetable oil in a diesel engine instead of going through the process of creating biodiesel? In other words, why is there a need for transesterification?

The answer lies in the difference in viscosity, that is the thickness or resistance to flow, between the two esters. Vegetable oil has too high a viscosity for diesel engines, designed for fossil diesel, to cope with. This is because the constituent alcohol molecule of the vegetable oil ester, glycerol, is very large. Hence we need to reduce the thickness of the vegetable oil by replacing the glycerol with an alcohol that is smaller in molecular size, methanol, and thus create a different ester.

This is what the process of transesterification allows us to do. By converting the vegetable oil ester into the biodiesel ester, it separates the larger glycerol molecules from the fatty acids within the vegetable oil. The methanol combines with the fatty acids producing smaller methyl esters thus creating the more free flowing biodiesel.

Given that transesterification is the process of converting one ester into another, it has to be noted that the process is reversible.

Benefits of Using Biodiesel

As we all know, the fossil fuels are a finite resource and will soar in price as the world's resources dwindle. Alternatives for road transport are not being given the impetus and investment that they deserve (hydrogen fuel cell technology is a prime example) and this represents a tremendous opportunity for the biodiesel industry to solve several problems with a series of simple strokes.

Firstly, biodiesel is completely sustainable. It is carbon neutral in that it releases the same amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere as it took out in the first place during the growth cycle. There are other major benefits in the use of biodiesel.

3 tonnes less carbon dioxide are liberated from storage in fossilised hydrocarbons
180g less sulphur oxides are produced - virtually zero emissions
20kg less nitrous oxides are produced
50kg less carbon monoxide is produced
40kg less particulates are produced - and biodiesel particulate emissions are NON-carcinogenic

Additionally, biodiesel fuel is 98% biodegradeable within 21 days.

Economically, there are also huge potential long term advantages in terms of producing cash-crops for farmers. Such utilisation of set aside and under-utilised land could increase agricultural sector employment by one person per 20 hectares dedicated to energy crops.

Professionally manufactured biodiesel is monitored by Customs and Excise as well as the Environment Agency. It conforms to DIN 51606 and EN 14214 and so is guaranteed to be effective in any diesel engine without modification.

The Process

The process of making biodiesel is known as transesterification and is achieved by adding methanol to vegetable oil. The process requires a catalyst to increase the rate of the chemical reaction between the methanol and vegetable oil. The catalyst used in the creation of biodiesel is an alkaline one, either Sodium Hydroxide or Potassium Hydroxide.

When the process is complete the catalyst can be recovered unaffected by the chemical reaction that it accelerated, along with the glycerol separated from the vegetable oil.

If waste vegetable oil is used then we have another situation to deal with. Waste vegetable oil will have been been reheated several times during the course of its usage. The reheating will cause some of the fatty acids bonded to the glycerol to break away and float freely in the vegetable oil - hence the name Free Fatty Acid (FFA). There are two ways of dealing with free fatty acids:

Esterify the FFAs creating methyl esters then proceeding with the transesterification.
Increase the amount of catalyst in the single transesterifaction process so that the additional catalyst neutralises the FFAs creating soap as an additional by-product.

Transesterification is a reversible reaction. This means that the process is working both ways simultaneously until a balance between the vegetable oil and biodiesel is reached. Consequently we need to ensure that the process continues the creation of biodiesel rather than stall once it reaches this point of equilibrium.

In commercial production we would tap off the output as it is created thus ensuring that there is a greater quantity of input vegetable oil to keep the reaction producing the biodiesel. For smaller scale production, however, it is more practical to use an increased volume of methanol to ensure that the reaction continues in the direction of producing biodiesel.

Step by Step from the Top

The commencement of the production process depends upon the type of oil employed, and whether it is fresh oil or used oils from the catering industry. In the case of the latter, a titration process takes place, the result of which determines the proportions of methanol to sodium hydroxide used in the preparation of the reaction catalyst. (Inadequate or omitted titration on used vegetable oil is the single biggest cause of fatty deposits in fuel filters).

There are then the following steps in the process of producing the biodiesel:

Filtration of inbound waste oil
Drying the fuel (i.e. removing water content, especially in the case of used oils)
Transesterification (specifically, the separation of the methyl esters from the glycerol)
Settling period
Separation of the biodiesel fuel from the glycerine layer [containing glycerol, catalyst, soap and methanol]
Washing the biodiesel fuel
Filtration to 5 microns
Drying the fuel again
Final products of biodiesel fuel and the by-products

This is the picture of the process making of wasted vegetable oil-biodiesel from Utah Biodiesel Supply :

[source : www.ehow.com]

Make Your Own Biogas Generator

Basic Principles

What Is Biogas?
Biogas is actually a mixture of gases, usually carbon dioxide and methane. It is produced by a few kinds of microorganisms, usually when air or oxygen is absent. (The absence of oxygen is called “anaerobic conditions.”) Animals that eat a lot of plant material, particularly grazing animals such as cattle, produce large amounts of biogas. The biogas is produced not by the cow or elephant, but by billions of microorganisms living in its digestive system. Biogas also develops in bogs and at the bottom of lakes, where decaying organic matter builds up under wet and anaerobic conditions.

A microscope photo of the methane-producing bacteria.
(Photo courtesy of University of Florida,
Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department)

Besides being able to live without oxygen, methaneproducing microorganisms have another special feature: They are among the very few creatures that can digest cellulose, the main ingredient of plant fi bres. Another special feature of these organisms is that they are very sensitive to conditions in their environment, such as temperature, acidity, the amount of water, etc.

Plant-eating animals such as bison release large amounts
of biogas to the atmosphere.

Biogas is a Form of Renewable Energy
Flammable biogas can be collected using a simple tank, as shown here. Animal manure is stored in a closed tank where the gas accumulates. It makes an excellent fuel for cook stoves and furnaces, and can be used in place of regular natural gas, which is a fossil fuel.

Biogas is a form of renewable energy, because it is
produced with the help of growing plants.

Biogas is considered to be a source of renewable energy. This is because the production of biogas
depends on the supply of grass, which usually grows back each year. By comparison, the natural gas used in most of our homes is not considered a form of renewable energy. Natural gas formed from the fossilized remains of plants and animals-a process that took millions of years. These resources do not “grow back” in a time scale that is meaningful for humans.

Biogas is Not New
People have been using biogas for over 200 years. In the days before electricity, biogas was drawn from the underground sewer pipes in London and burned in street lamps, which were known as “gaslights.” In many parts of the world, biogas is used to heat and light homes, to cook, and even to fuel buses. It is collected from large-scale sources such as landfi lls and pig barns, and through small domestic or community systems in many villages.

Build It!

The apparatus you are going to build uses a discarded 18 litre water container as the “digester.” A mixture of water and animal manure will generate the methane, which you will collect in a plastic balloon. The 18 litre water container performs the same task as the stomach of a livestock animal by providing the warm, wet conditions favored by the bacteria that make the methane.

Safety Precautions
The main hazards in this activity are from sharp tools such as tubing cutters and scissors. Exercise caution while using any tool. There is no risk of explosion due to the leakage of methane because the gas develops so slowly that it dissipates long before it can reach fl ammable concentrations in room air. Exercise the normal precautions in the use of Bunsen burners: keep hair and clothing away from the burner while it is lit.

Tools
• Tubing cutter
• Scissors
• Adjustable wrench
• Rubber gloves
• Electric drill with ¼” bit, or cork borer
• Hot glue gun, with glue sticks
• Electrical or duct tape
• Sandpaper (metal fi le will also work)

Materials
• Used 18L clear plastic water bottle
• Large Mylar helium balloon Plastic water bottle cap (with the “no-spill” insert-see photo)
• Copper tubing (40 cm long, 6.5mm (1/4”) inside diameter)
• T-connector for plastic tubing (barbed, 6mm or ¼” long)
• 1 cork (tapered, 23mm long)
• Clear vinyl tubing (1.5 m long, 4mm or ¼-inch inside diameter)
• 2 barb fi ttings (¼” x ¼”)
• Ball valve (1/4”)
• 6-8L manure pellets (goat, sheep, llama, rabbit, or other ruminant)
• Rubber gloves
• Large plastic funnel (can be made from a 4L plastic milk jug with bottom removed)
• Wooden dowelling or stick (30 to 50 cm long, 2-3 cm thick)

The materials and tools you’ll need to build a
biogas generator.

Sources
Water bottle: Many hardware and grocery stores now sell purifi ed water that they bottle on site. They often collect containers that can no longer be refi lled because of dirt or damage to the bottle. These unrefi llable bottles are frequently available for free. Ask to speak to the clerk in charge of refi lling bottles. Ask for a used cap as well.

Mylar balloons: Check with any local fl orist or novelty store.
Tubing, valves, T-connectors, barb fi ttings: Check at your local hardware or plumbing supply store.
Manure: If you do not know someone who has domesticated rabbits, sheep, llamas or other similar pellet-producing animals, you can often purchase sheep or steer manure by the bag at your local garden center.

A. Prepare the biogas collection system
1. Cut a 20cm piece of copper tubing. Round off the sharp edges of the freshly cut tubing using sandpaper or a metal fi le.
2. The Mylar balloon has a sleeve-like valve that prevents helium from escaping once it is fi lled. This sleeve will help form a leak-proof seal around the rigid tubing. Push the tubing into the neck of the balloon, past the end of the sleeve, leaving about 2cm protruding from the neck of the balloon, as shown below.

Inserting copper tubing.

3. Test the tube to be sure air can enter and leave the balloon freely, by blowing a little in through the tube. The balloon should infl ate with little or no resistance, and the air should be able to escape easily through the tube.
4. Securely tape the neck of the balloon to the tube as shown in the illustration.

Taping the neck.

5. Using a drill or cork borer, make a small (4mm) hole in the center of the stopper. Add a few drops of hot glue around and inside the hole and insert the stem of the ¼-inch T-adapter into the cork.

Gluing cork.

6. Screw the two barb fi ttings into the body of the ball valve. Tighten with the adjustable wrench.

Installing the barb fi ttings on the ball valve.

7. Cut two sections of vinyl tubing, each 25cm long. Use them to connect the balloon to the T-adapter, and to connect the ball valve to the Bunsen burner. Assemble the rest of the gas collection system according to the diagram below.

Assembly of the biogas collection system.

B. Prepare the manure mixture
This is a job best done outside, with rubber gloves!

1. Cut the bottom off a 4L plastic milk jug to make a wide-mouthed funnel.
2. Place the funnel into the neck of the plastic water bottle and scoop in small amounts of manure.

Scooping manure.

3. Use a stick or piece of dowelling to push the manure through the neck of the bottle if it gets
plugged.
4. Add enough water to bring the level close to the top of the water bottle.

Slurry level.

5. Use the stick to stir up the manure and water mixture, releasing any bubbles of air that might be trapped.
6. Clean up carefully. Use soap and wash hands thoroughly.

C. Final Set-up
1. Snap the cap onto the top of the manure-fi lled 18 litre water bottle.

Completed biogas generator.

2. Be sure the ball valve is closed, but that gas moving from the water bottle can pass freely
through the T-adapter to the balloon.
3. Set the biogas generator in a warm location, such as over a heat register or radiator or in a sunlit window. If the biogas generator is placed in a window, be sure to wrap the outside of the container in black plastic or construction paper, to discourage algae from growing inside the bottle.

Test It!

For the fi rst few weeks, your biogas generator will produce mainly carbon dioxide. When the aerobic bacteria use up all the oxygen inside the bottle, the anaerobic bacteria, which make methane, can take over. It can take up to a month for the generator to start making biogas with enough methane to be fl ammable. When gas begins to accumulate in the balloon, test it by attempting to light the Bunsen burner:

Use caution when testing the biogas.

1. First, open the clamp or valve so that biogas can fl ow back from the balloon to the Bunsen burner.
2. Have a friend squeeze the Mylar balloon gently while you attempt to light the Bunsen burner with a match or spark igniter.
3. If your Bunsen burner ignites, your biogas generator is a success!

[source : A Renewable Energy Project Kit - The Pembina Institute]

Algae fuel, also called oilgae or third generation biofuel, is a biofuel from algae. Algae are low-input, high-yield feedstocks to produce biofuels. It produces 30 times more energy per acre than land crops such as soybeans. With the higher prices of fossil fuels (petroleum), there is much interest in algaculture (farming algae). One advantage of many biofuels over most other fuel types is that they are biodegradable, and so relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.

The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 square miles (38,849 square kilometers), which is roughly the size of Maryland.

Second and third generation biofuels are also called advanced biofuels.

Algae, such as Botryococcus braunii and Chlorella vulgaris, are relatively easy to grow, but the algal oil is hard to extract. There are several approaches, some of which work better than others. Macroalage (seaweed) also have a great potential for bioethanol and biogas production.

Most biofuel production comes from harvesting organic matter and then converting it to fuel but an alternative approach relies on the fact that some algae naturally produce ethanol and this can be collected without killing the algae. The ethanol evaporates and then can be condensed and collected. The company Algenol is trying to commercialize this process.

Biofuel : Second Generation Biofuels

Supporters of biofuels claim that a more viable solution is to increase political and industrial support for, and rapidity of, second-generation biofuel implementation from non food crops, including cellulosic biofuels. Second-generation biofuel production processes can use a variety of non food crops. These include waste biomass, the stalks of wheat, corn, wood, and special-energy-or-biomass crops (e.g. Miscanthus). Second generation (2G) biofuels use biomass to liquid technology, including cellulosic biofuels from non food crops. Many second generation biofuels are under development such as biohydrogen, biomethanol, DMF, Bio-DME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, biohydrogen diesel, mixed alcohols and wood diesel.

Cellulosic ethanol production uses non food crops or inedible waste products and does not divert food away from the animal or human food chain. Lignocellulose is the "woody" structural material of plants. This feedstock is abundant and diverse, and in some cases (like citrus peels or sawdust) it is a significant disposal problem.

Producing ethanol from cellulose is a difficult technical problem to solve. In nature, ruminant livestock (like cattle) eats grass and then use slow enzymatic digestive processes to break it into glucose (sugar). In cellulosic ethanol laboratories, various experimental processes are being developed to do the same thing, and then the sugars released can be fermented to make ethanol fuel. In 2009 scientists reported developing, using "synthetic biology", "15 new highly stable fungal enzyme catalysts that efficiently break down cellulose into sugars at high temperatures", adding to the 10 previously known. In addition, research conducted at TU Delft by Jack Pronk has shown that elephant yeast, when slightly modified can also create ethanol from non-edible ground sources (eg straw).

The recent discovery of the fungus Gliocladium roseum points toward the production of so-called myco-diesel from cellulose. This organism was recently discovered in the rainforests of northern Patagonia and has the unique capability of converting cellulose into medium length hydrocarbons typically found in diesel fuel.

Scientists also work on experimental recombinant DNA genetic engineering organisms that could increase biofuel potential.

Biofuel : Third Generation Biofuels
Biofuel : First Generation Biofuels
Biofuel
Making Biodiesel From Waste Vegetable Oil

Biofuel : First Generation Biofuels

First generation biofuels

Vegetable oil
Edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower quality oil can be used for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and used as a fuel. To ensure that the fuel injectors atomize the fuel in the correct pattern for efficient combustion, vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce its viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils or heat exchangers. This is easier in warm or temperate climates. MAN B&W Diesel, Wartsila and Deutz AG offer engines that are compatible with straight vegetable oil, without the need for after-market modifications. Vegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel engines that do not use common rail or unit injection electronic diesel injection systems. Due to the design of the combustion chambers in indirect injection engines, these are the best engines for use with vegetable oil. This system allows the relatively larger oil molecules more time to burn. However, a handful of drivers have experienced limited success with earlier pre-"pumped use" VW TDI engines and other similar engines with direct injection.

Oils and fats can be hydrogenated to give a diesel substitute. The resulting product is a straight chain hydrocarbon, high in cetane, low in aromatics and sulphur and does not contain oxygen. Hydrogenated oils can be blended with diesel in all proportions. Hydrogenated oils have several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at low temperatures, no storage stability problems and no susceptibility to microbial attack.

Biodiesel
Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Its chemical name is fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) ester (FAME). Oils are mixed with sodium hydroxide and methanol (or ethanol) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel (FAME) and glycerol. One part glycerol is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel. Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100) is by far the lowest emission diesel fuel. Although liquefied petroleum gas and hydrogen have cleaner combustion, they are used to fuel much less efficient petrol engines and are not as widely available.

Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. The majority of vehicle manufacturers limit their recommendations to 15% biodiesel blended with mineral diesel. In some countries manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for B100 use, although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks drivers to check by telephone with the VW environmental services department before switching to B100. B100 may become more viscous at lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used, requiring vehicles to have fuel line heaters. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible with diesel engines from 1994 onwards, which use 'Viton' (by DuPont) synthetic rubber in their mechanical injection systems. Electronically controlled 'common rail' and 'pump duse' type systems from the late 1990s onwards may only use biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely metered and atomized multi-stage injection systems are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel. Many current generation diesel engines are made so that they can run on B100 without altering the engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. NExBTL is suitable for all diesel engines in the world since it overperforms DIN EN 590 standards.

Since biodiesel is an effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine filters may need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon deposits, helping to maintain efficiency. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is available at thousands of gas stations. Biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning that it contains a reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel. This improves the combustion of fossil diesel and reduces the particulate emissions from un-burnt carbon.

Biodiesel is safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable as sugar, 10 times less toxic than table salt, and has a high flashpoint of about 300 F compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125 F.

In the USA, more than 80% of commercial trucks and city buses run on diesel. The emerging US biodiesel market is estimated to have grown 200% from 2004 to 2005. "By the end of 2006 biodiesel production was estimated to increase fourfold [from 2004] to more than 1 billion gallons,".

Bioalcohols
The Koenigsegg CCXR Edition at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. This is an "environmentally-friendly" version of the CCX, which can use E85 and E100.

Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult). Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine (in a similar way to biodiesel in diesel engines).

Butanol is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental modifications of the process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as the only liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned "straight" in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), and is less corrosive and less water soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. DuPont and BP are working together to help develop Butanol. E. coli have also been successfully engineered to produce Butanol by hijacking their amino acid metabolism.

Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch that alcoholic beverages can be made from (like potato and fruit waste, etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat (often unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice, can also be used more sustainably).

Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing automobile petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Gasoline with ethanol added has higher octane, which means that your engine can typically burn hotter and more efficiently. In high altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.

Ethanol fuel has less BTU energy content, which means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol is that is has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations and ethanol's higher octane rating allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency.. Very-expensive aviation gasoline (Avgas) is 100 octane made from 100% petroleum with toxic tetra-ethyl lead added to raise the octane number. The high price of zero-ethanol Avgas does not include federal-and-state road-use taxes.

Ethanol is very corrosive to fuel systems, rubber hoses and gaskets, aluminum, and combustion chambers. Therefore, it is illegal to use fuels containing alcohol in aircraft (although at least one model of ethanol-powered aircraft has been developed, the Embraer EMB 202 Ipanema). Ethanol also corrodes fiberglass fuel tanks such as used in marine engines. For higher ethanol percentage blends, and 100% ethanol vehicles, engine modifications are required.

It is the hygroscopic (water loving) nature of relatively polar ethanol that can promote corrosion of existing pipelines and older fuel delivery systems. To characterize ethanol itself as a corrosive chemical is somewhat misleading and the context in which it can be indirectly corrosive, somewhat narrow; i.e., limited to effects upon existing pipelines designed for petroleum transport.

Corrosive ethanol cannot be transported in petroleum pipelines, so more-expensive over-the-road stainless-steel tank trucks increase the cost and energy consumption required to deliver ethanol to the customer at the pump.

In the current alcohol-from-corn production model in the United States, considering the total energy consumed by farm equipment, cultivation, planting, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides made from petroleum, irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of feedstock to processing plants, fermentation, distillation, drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps, and lower ethanol fuel energy content, the net energy content value added and delivered to consumers is very small. And, the net benefit (all things considered) does little to reduce un-sustainable imported oil and fossil fuels required to produce the ethanol.

Although ethanol-from-corn and other food stocks has implications both in terms of world food prices and limited, yet positive energy yield (in terms of energy delivered to customer/fossil fuels used), the technology has lead to the development of cellulosic ethanol. According to a joint research agenda conducted through the U.S. Department of Energy, the fossil energy ratios (FER) for cellulosic ethanol, corn ethanol, and gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and 0.81, respectively.

Many car manufacturers are now producing flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV's), which can safely run on any combination of bioethanol and petrol, up to 100% bioethanol. They dynamically sense exhaust oxygen content, and adjust the engine's computer systems, spark, and fuel injection accordingly. This adds initial cost and ongoing increased vehicle maintenance.[citation needed] Efficiency falls and pollution emissions increase when FFV system maintenance is needed (regardless of the fuel mix being used), but not performed (as with all vehicles). FFV internal combustion engines are becoming increasingly complex, as are multiple-propulsion-system FFV hybrid vehicles, which impacts cost, maintenance, reliability, and useful lifetime longevity.[citation needed]

Alcohol mixes with both petroleum and with water, so ethanol fuels are often diluted after the drying process by absorbing environmental moisture from the atmosphere. Water in alcohol-mix fuels reduces efficiency, makes engines harder to start, causes intermittent operation (sputtering), and oxidizes aluminum (carburetors) and steel components (rust).

Even dry ethanol has roughly one-third lower energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline, so larger / heavier fuel tanks are required to travel the same distance, or more fuel stops are required. With large current un-sustainable, non-scalable subsidies, ethanol fuel still costs much more per distance traveled than current high gasoline prices in the United States.

Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable fossil fuel. It can also be produced from biomass as biomethanol. The methanol economy is an interesting alternative to the hydrogen economy, compared to today's hydrogen produced from natural gas, but not hydrogen production directly from water and state-of-the-art clean solar thermal energy processes.

Bioethers
Bio ethers (also referred to as fuel ethers or fuel oxygenates) are cost-effective compounds that act as octane enhancers. They also enhance engine performance, whilst significantly reducing engine wear and toxic exhaust emissions. Greatly reducing the amount of ground-level ozone, they contribute to the quality of the air we breathe.

Biogas
Biogas is produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer. In the UK, the National Coal Board experimented with microorganisms that digested coal in situ converting it directly to gases such as methane.

Biogas contains methane and can be recovered from industrial anaerobic digesters and mechanical biological treatment systems. Landfill gas is a less clean form of biogas which is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the atmosphere it is a potent greenhouse gas.

Oils and gases can be produced from various biological wastes:
Thermal depolymerization of waste can extract methane and other oils similar to petroleum.
GreenFuel Technologies Corporation developed a patented bioreactor system that uses nontoxic photosynthetic algae to take in smokestacks flue gases and produce biofuels such as biodiesel, biogas and a dry fuel comparable to coal.

Syngas
Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is, combustion with an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide and water. Before partial combustion the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed.

The resulting gas mixture, syngas, is itself a fuel. Using the syngas is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.

Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines or turbines. The wood gas generator is a wood-fueled gasification reactor mounted on an internal combustion engine. Syngas can be used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer-Tropsch process to produce a synthetic diesel substitute, or a mixture of alcohols that can be blended into gasoline. Gasification normally relies on temperatures >700°C. Lower temperature gasification is desirable when co-producing biochar but results in a Syngas polluted with tar.

Solid biofuels
Examples include wood, sawdust, grass cuttings, domestic refuse, charcoal, agricultural waste, non-food energy crops (see picture), and dried manure.

When raw biomass is already in a suitable form (such as firewood), it can burn directly in a stove or furnace to provide heat or raise steam. When raw biomass is in an inconvenient form (such as sawdust, wood chips, grass, agricultural wastes), another option is to pelletize the biomass with a pellet mill. The resulting fuel pellets are easier to burn in a pellet stove.

A problem with the combustion of raw biomass is that it emits considerable amounts of pollutants such as particulates and PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). Even modern pellet boilers generates much more pollutants than oil or natural gas boilers. Pellets made from agricultural residues are usually worse than wood pellets, producing much larger emissions of dioxins and chlorophenols.

Another solid biofuel is biochar, which is produced by biomass pyrolysis. Biochar pellets made from agricultural waste can substitute for wood charcoal. In countries where charcoal stoves are popular, this can reduce deforestation.

Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gaseous fuel obtained from relatively recently lifeless or living biological material and is different from fossil fuels, which are derived from long dead biological material. Also, various plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacturing.

Globally, biofuels are most commonly used to power vehicles, heat homes, and for cooking. Biofuel industries are expanding in Europe, Asia and the Americas. Recent technology developed at Los Alamos National Lab even allows for the conversion of pollution into renewable bio fuel. Agrofuels are biofuels which are produced from specific crops, rather than from waste processes such as landfill off-gassing or recycled vegetable oil.

Biomass or biofuel is material derived from recently living organisms. This includes plants, animals and their by-products. For example, manure, garden waste and crop residues are all sources of biomass. It is a renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal, and nuclear fuels.

It is used to produce power, heat & steam and fuel, through a number of different processes. Although renewable, biomass often involves a burning process that produces emissions such as Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2), but fortunately in quantities far less than those emitted by coal plants. However, proponents of coal plants feel that their way of doing it is a lot cheaper and there is a lot of dispute over this.

Biomass is one of the few forms of energy that can be used in a carbon negative manner[citation needed]. When biomass is combusted to produce heat, it releases less carbon than was absorbed by the plant material during the plant's lifecycle[citation needed]. This is because approximately one third of the carbon absorbed by the plant during its life is sequestered in its roots, which are left in the soil to rot and fertilize nearby plant life, and combustion of biomass produces 1-10% solid ash (depending on type of plant used), which is extremely high in carbon (this ash is commonly used as fertilizer).

Animal waste is a persistent and unavoidable pollutant produced primarily by the animals housed in industrial-size farms. Researchers from Washington University have figured out a way to turn manure into biomass. In April 2008 with the help of imaging technology they noticed that vigorous mixing helps microorganisms turn farm waste into alternative energy, providing farmers with a simple way to treat their waste and convert it into energy.

There are also agricultural products specifically grown for biofuel production including corn, switchgrass, and soybeans, primarily in the United States; rapeseed, wheat and sugar beet primarily in Europe; sugar cane in Brazil; palm oil and miscanthus in South-East Asia; sorghum and cassava in China; and jatropha and pongamia pinnata in India; pongamia pinnata in Australia and the tropics. Hemp has also been proven to work as a biofuel. Biodegradable outputs from industry, agriculture, forestry and households can be used for biofuel production, either using anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, or using second generation biofuels; examples include straw, timber, manure, rice husks, sewage, and food waste. Biomass can come from waste plant material. The use of biomass fuels can therefore contribute to waste management as well as fuel security and help to prevent global warming, though alone they are not a comprehensive solution to these problems.

The Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird is, to date, the fastest airplane ever to streak across the sky, even though it's more than 30 years old. Capable of speeds over 2200 miles per hour—that's more than three times the speed of sound—the SR-71 can fly at altitudes above 80,000 feet. What does it feel like to travel at Mach 3, 15 miles above the earth? Pilots report that, with no view out the window, there's an eerie sensation of motionlessness when cruising in the Blackbird.

To fly safely in this harsh, low-pressure environment pilots must wear a full-pressure suit for protection. Even though the temperature outside the aircraft hovers around -70 degrees F, the sheer friction of flying at Mach 3 heats the leading edges of the SR-71 to 800 degrees F. To help withstand this kinetic heat, the Blackbird's airframe is built almost entirely of titanium and is finished in a special heat-emitting black paint, which helps to cool the aircraft and gives it its nickname.

The SR-71 can operate for about an hour at top speed before it needs refueling—a feat that can be accomplished in mid-air with a special tanker aircraft. The Blackbird is powered by two Pratt and Whitney J-58 axial-flow turbojets with afterburners, each producing about 34,000 pounds of thrust. Studies have shown that when the aircraft is cruising at Mach 3 or above only about 25 percent of the total thrust is produced by the engines themselves. The balance is produced by the unique design of the engine inlet and housing, which is equipped with special afterburners.

The two-seat SR-71 was developed in the early 1960s by the U.S. Air Force as a strategic reconnaissance aircraft. The first flight of an SR-71 was in 1964 at a classified location in Nevada. The aircraft's first operational "sortie" was flown out of Okinawa, Japan in 1968. Most of the SR-71 fleet has now been retired, except for two Blackbirds currently on loan to NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center where the aircraft are being used as "test beds" for high altitude research."

The World Water Speed record, like the air speed record, is decades old. Australian Ken Warby set the record in 1978 when he averaged 317.60 mph in a 27-foot jet-powered hydroplane called "Spirit of Australia." The official speed test, which consists of two back-to-back runs over a one-kilometer straight-away, took place on Blowering Dam in New South Wales, Australia. And where did Warby design and build this hydraulic masterpiece? Underneath a tree in the back yard of a house he was renting in suburban Sydney. "There was a canvas sheet I used to throw over it when it rained," he told the press.

Attempts at beating Warby's record have come at a high price. In 1980, the previous water speed record holder, Lee Taylor, tried to reclaim his title in a 2.5 million dollar rocket-boat called "Discovery II." The missile-shaped craft was constructed of aluminum, titanium and stainless steel and was powered by a rocket engine that burned hydrogen peroxide fuel. On paper, the power plant generated 8,000 pounds of thrust—or 16,000 horsepower. Taylor believed his boat would surpass 600 mph.

The trial took place November 13, 1980 on Nevada's Lake Tahoe. Discovery II roared through its first pass at 269.85 mph and was decelerating when it appeared to hit a swell. Witnesses reported that the boat veered to the left and suddenly disintegrated, vanishing under the surface of the lake in a matter of a few seconds.

Craig Arfons, a former automotive drag racing champion, was the next to take up the challenge. In 1989, he put the finishing touches on a jet hydroplane called "Rain-X Record Challenger," which boasted a lightweight composite hull and a jet engine that could deliver 5,500 horsepower with the afterburner lit. Arfons calculated that the boat's favorable thrust-to-weight ratio would give it a 200 percent power advantage over Warby's record-setting boat.

The record attempt took place on Jackson Lake near Sebring, Florida. Members of Arfons' crew say his boat reached a speed of 263 mph before it became airborne and began to cartwheel across the mirror-smooth lake. Arfons tried to deploy a safety parachute, but the angle at which his boat was traveling prevented the parachute from opening. Arfons was killed as his boat shattered around him.

Recently Warby, now 58, has announced his intention to push his World Water Speed Record even higher with a new boat currently under construction. "I'm far too young to be in a rocking chair, so I thought I'd get back in the cockpit."

Fastest Solar-Powered Car

Nuna4

The Nuna4 is fourth in a line of single-seat racers built to conquer the annual Panasonic World Solar Challenge, an 1,865-mile sprint across Australia's vast sun-soaked outback. The three-wheeled Nuna4's 65-square-foot upper surface is encrusted with 2,318 photovoltaic cells. The cells charge a 66-pound lithium-polymer battery pack, which juices a 7.5-horsepower direct-drive electric motor in the rear wheel.

To sustain 80 mph, the Nuna4 (a slight 420 pounds, plus driver) uses no more electricity than a household vacuum cleaner. Its alien design is the work of 11 students at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands, where people know the importance of maximizing the sun's rays. This year's Solar Challenge gets underway on Oct. 21, springtime Down Under.

GM Sunraycer

The Sunraycer was a solar powered race car designed to compete in the world's first race featuring solar-powered cars. This race is now called the World Solar Challenge. The Sunraycer, a joint collaboration between General Motors, AeroVironment, and Hughes Aircraft, won the first race in 1987 by a huge margin. One of its drivers was Australian Touring Car racer, John Harvey.

The Sunraycer project started with a request from GM's Australian division to GM Headquarters to participate in the upcoming Solar Challenge. This race, to be held in Australia in late 1987 would feature purely solar powered cars. Roger Smith, the CEO of GM, was immediately interested in the idea and he agreed to fund a study to see if a solar powered car could be built within 10 months. Smith hired AeroVironment to do the study. A month later, AeroVironment engineers concluded that a highly competitive car could be built within the time available. AeroVironment, led by their famous owner/engineer Paul MacCready was given the contract to build what would be called the Sunraycer.

During the conceptual process, the constant goal was to create a very low-weight and ultra-low wind resistance vehicle. With this in mind, AeroVironment produced a design (resembling a futuristic streamlined cockroach) that proved to be very lightweight (only 585 lb (265 kg)) and created a very low drag co-efficient (Cd: 0.125). Sunraycer was fast and capable of a top speed of 109 km/h (68 mph).

A total of 8800 solar cells were manufactured and installed by a team, from Hughes Aircraft, which had a great deal of experience with photovoltaic cells used in the many communications satellites that they designed and built. At high noon, the car would generate about 1500 watts of power.

The engine was created for the Sunraycer by GM using a brand new magnetic motor based on Magnequench magnets recently invented by the GM physics department. This new motor was lightweight and efficient motor; GM stated its motor efficiency was around 92%.

Aside from the driver, the single heaviest element in the car was the Hughes battery pack that utilized silver-oxide batteries. These batteries were included to provide extra power when passing trucks, to smooth out the performance of the vehicle, and because the race rules mandated driving only between the hours of 8 AM to 5 PM, but the cars were allowed to charge their batteries from sunlight even when they weren't on the road. (So, the battery allowed driving during allowed hours even when the weather was overcast.)

The frame of the car weighed just 14 pounds. AeroVironment engineers made use of Kevlar for the shell of the car. The Sunraycer was tested through the spring and summer of 1987, and it had no problems. During the testing period, the team had the time to set a new world speed record with the Sunraycer, achieving a speed of 36 mph (58 km/h) from solar power alone (breaking the old record by 10 mph).

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

What is The Greenhouse Effect ?

The greenhouse effect is often referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect which is an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leading to an increase in the amount of infrared or thermal radiation near the surface.

The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of radiation. Most of the energy is in visible wavelengths and in infrared wavelengths that are near the visible range (often called "near infrared"). The Earth reflects about 30% of the incoming solar radiation. The remaining 70% is absorbed, warming the land, atmosphere and ocean.

For the Earth's temperature to be in steady state so that the Earth does not rapidly heat or cool, this absorbed solar radiation must be very closely balanced by energy radiated back to space in the infrared wavelengths. Since the intensity of infrared radiation increases with increasing temperature, one can think of the Earth's temperature as being determined by the infrared flux needed to balance the absorbed solar flux. The visible solar radiation mostly heats the surface, not the atmosphere, whereas most of the infrared radiation escaping to space is emitted from the upper atmosphere, not the surface. The infrared photons emitted by the surface are mostly absorbed in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases and clouds and do not escape directly to space.

The reason this warms the surface is most easily understood by starting with a simplified model of a purely radiative greenhouse effect that ignores energy transfer in the atmosphere by convection (sensible heat transport, Sensible heat flux) and by the evaporation and condensation of water vapor (latent heat transport, Latent heat flux). In this purely radiative case, one can think of the atmosphere as emitting infrared radiation both upwards and downwards. The upward infrared flux emitted by the surface must balance not only the absorbed solar flux but also this downward infrared flux emitted by the atmosphere. The surface temperature will rise until it generates thermal radiation equivalent to the sum of the incoming solar and infrared radiation.

A more realistic picture taking into account the convective and latent heat fluxes is somewhat more complex. But the following simple model captures the essence. The starting point is to note that the opacity of the atmosphere to infrared radiation determines the height in the atmosphere from which most of the photons are emitted into space. If the atmosphere is more opaque, the typical photon escaping to space will be emitted from higher in the atmosphere, because one then has to go to higher altitudes to see out to space in the infrared. Since the emission of infrared radiation is a function of temperature, it is the temperature of the atmosphere at this emission level that is effectively determined by the requirement that the emitted flux balance the absorbed solar flux.

But the temperature of the atmosphere generally decreases with height above the surface, at a rate of roughly 6.5 °C per kilometer on average, until one reaches the stratosphere 10–15 km above the surface. (Most infrared photons escaping to space are emitted by the troposphere, the region bounded by the surface and the stratosphere, so we can ignore the stratosphere in this simple picture.) A very simple model, but one that proves to be remarkably useful, involves the assumption that this temperature profile is simply fixed, by the non-radiative energy fluxes. Given the temperature at the emission level of the infrared flux escaping to space, one then computes the surface temperature by increasing temperature at the rate of 6.5 °C per kilometer, the environmental lapse rate, until one reaches the surface. The more opaque the atmosphere, and the higher the emission level of the escaping infrared radiation, the warmer the surface, since one then needs to follow this lapse rate over a larger distance in the vertical. While less intuitive than the purely radiative greenhouse effect, this less familiar radiative-convective picture is the starting point for most discussions of the greenhouse effect in the climate modeling literature.

Greenhouse gases

The greenhouse effect is caused by 'green house gases', which are primarily made up of Argon, Carbon Dioxide, Neon, Helium, Methane, Hydrogen, Nitrous Oxide and Ozone.

When these gases are ranked by their contribution to the greenhouse effect, the most important are:
water vapor, which contributes 36–70%
carbon dioxide, which contributes 9–26%
methane, which contributes 4–9%
ozone, which contributes 3–7%

The major non-gas contributor to the Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases.

Of the human-produced greenhouse gases, the one that contributes the bulk in terms of radiative forcing is carbon dioxide. CO2 production from increased industrial activity (fossil fuel burning) and other human activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation has increased the concentrations in the atmosphere. Measurements of CO2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 ppm (mole fraction in dry air) in 1960 to about 375 ppm in 2005. The current observed amount of CO2 exceeds the geological record maxima (~300 ppm) from ice core data.

The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the greenhouse effect first demonstrated in the 1930s, may be called the Callendar effect.

Because it is a greenhouse gas, elevated CO2 levels will contribute to additional absorption and emission of thermal infrared in the atmosphere, which could contribute to net warming. In fact, according to Assessment Reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations".

Over the past 800,000 years, ice core data shows unambiguously that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 parts per million (ppm) to the pre-industrial level of 270ppm. Certain paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide to be a fundamental factor in controlling climate variations over this time scale.

Responses to anthropogenic global warming fall into three categories:

Adaptation - dealing with the effects of global warming, such as by building flood defences
Mitigation - reducing carbon emissions, such as by using renewable energy and energyefficiency measures.
Geoengineering - directly intervening in the climate using techniques such as solar radiation management

Real greenhouses

The term "greenhouse effect" can be a source of confusion as actual greenhouses do not function by the same mechanism the atmosphere does. Various materials at times imply incorrectly that they do, or do not make the distinction between the processes of radiation and convection.

The term 'greenhouse effect' originally came from the greenhouses used for gardening, but as mentioned the mechanism for greenhouses operates differently. Many sources make the "heat trapping" analogy of how a greenhouse limits convection to how the atmosphere performs a similar function through the different mechanism of infrared absorbing gases.

A greenhouse is usually built of glass, plastic, or a plastic-type material. It heats up mainly because the sun warms the ground inside it, which then warms the air in the greenhouse. The air continues to heat because it is confined within the greenhouse, unlike the environment outside the greenhouse where warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It has also been demonstrated experimentally (Wood, 1909) that a "greenhouse" with a cover of rock salt heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Greenhouses thus work primarily by preventing convection; the atmospheric greenhouse effect however reduces radiation loss, not convection.

Fastest Scooter : Go-Ped ESR 750 EX & Xtreme X600

Go-Ped ESR 750EX

The 2009 Go-Ped "Electric Speed Racer" ESR 750EX is in a class by itself. It’s perfect for commuters, pleasure riders and electric enthusiasts who demand a first class riding experience. It's powered by a 1000+ watt advanced technology Go-Ped electric motor that offers state-of-the-art performance and reliability. Thrilling acceleration, speeds up to 20 mph and outrageous hill climbing are par for the course with this unique gliding machine. The Go-Ped ESR 750EX has a low center of gravity, stable ride and great maneuverability. It's extremely durable, reliable and easy to maintain. Innovative and high quality features abound with the Go-Ped ESR 750 EX, like carefully designed ergonomic controls, powerful "Mad Dog" disc brakes, a built-in smart charger and an ultra-modern programmable controller. The dual performance feature lets the rider chose an "Economy" or "Turbo" mode to go either "twice as far, half as fast", or "twice as fast, half as far". This gives you absolute control over your choice of speed and range. The ESR 750EX's lines are simple yet elegant. The molded "motorcycle style" rear fender gives it an aerodynamic look and super cool sense of style. The fit-n-finish on the Go-Ped ESR 750EX are impressive! It's superbly engineered down the smallest detail and built using only the finest components. As with all electric scooters, the ESR 750EX is clean, quiet and environmentally friendly. Go-Ped launched the motorized scooter craze nearly 20 years ago and has been designing the most high-end, innovative and refined scooting machines ever since. Go-Ped's are made in the USA and the company is world renown for its dedication to Go-Ped perfection.

Specification :

Motor 24V 1000 watt Brush D/C with Aluminum heat sink
* Maximum Speed 20 mph (turbo mode)
Dual Performance: Turbo and Economy Modes
Batteries (4) 12V SLA (sealed lead acid)
11Ah @ 10hr rate, 6Ah @ 15min rate
Power Controller Advanced Computerized and programmable Variable Speed Controller
Charger On board smart charger 110v-240v capability
* Range Econo Mode: 12+ miles / Turbo Mode: 8 miles (with 160lb rider, flat ground, non-stop)

Unmatched Hill Climbing ability
Transmission Chain Drive
Dimensions Not Folded: L-48" W-18" H-41" / Folded: L-48" W-18" H-17"
Weight 59 lbs
Max Load 400 lbs
Frame Aircraft quality 4130 Chromyl frame

Xtreme X600

The X-600 has it all including front and rear shocks, a hard abs deck with a cool design, 36 volts & 600 watts of power and it comes in 2 striking colors of red or blue. The X-600 also has the widest deck, the largest size wheels and it is chain driven to ensure a quiet pollution free ride

The X-600 is our best electric racing scooter we offer & is the only one that has both front & rear shocks, racing handle bars and a hardened ABS deck. Each X-600 comes standard with front vented disk brakes, rear drum brakes and a frame that is made of high tensile steel and will not break, even during rough riding or jumping.

This features the Lock -N- Carry mechanism that will allow you to fold the scooter by pulling the handle, then lock it into place so you can carry it like a brief case. The scooter easily unlocks and is ready for use in 2 seconds.

Specification :

Power: Electric
Watts: 600 True Wattage
Amps: 36+
Volts: 36
Controller: High output PMW, with Brake interrupt feature.
Batteries: Three 12 volt, 12amp, Heavy Duty, SLA
Tires: 10" Light Electric Vehicle
Charger: Smart Charger Included
Speed: Up to 23 mph*
Distance: Up to 20 miles per charge*
Climbing ability : Climbs a 6% to 10% grade*
Throttle Type: Twist grip, variable speed control
Power Switch: Toggle.
Seat Kit : Included (oversize with springs)
F. Suspension: Twin spring loaded shocks
R. Suspension: Unique offset mono shock
Brakes: Front Disc. Rear band brake.
Drive System: Chain
Foldable: Yes
Max. Frame Load: 330 lbs
Scooter Size : Length 44" Height 42"
In Box Weight: 70 lbs
Scooter Weight: 60 lbs
Indicator: Battery charge level

A Californian company has unveiled the world's fastest production electric motorbike, the Mission One.

Manufactured by San Francisco-based Mission Motors, the bike is capable of 150mph - considerably quicker than the British-designed, pre-production TTX01 bike - and is on sale now to US customers, with deliveries due in 2010.

The bike's history has echoes of Tesla Motors' Roadster, the luxury electric sports car that was conceived, designed and built in California with funding from clean technology investors including Google founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin.

Mission Motors' founder, Forrest North, is a former Tesla employee who, in 2007, began work on converting a petrol-powered Ducati motorbike into an electric model, with the aspiration of combining the performance of petrol with zero exhaust pipe emissions.

"As a motorcycle enthusiast and engineer, I knew I could combine my passion for motorcycles with my passion for innovation and create a motorcycle that truly sets a new standard in the perception of electric vehicles," North said at the bike's launch at the TED conference in Long Beach, California.

North's bike is powered by lithium-ion batteries - the type found in laptops and mobile phones - and will reportedly run for 150 miles between recharging, which takes two hours.

The model demonstrated was a hand-built prototype. It is yet to be tested on the road at 150mph, but a Mission Motors' spokesman said they "have no doubt that this prototype will achieve its target speed".

Tesla and Mission Motors are targeting affluent green motorists, with the Tesla selling for £92,000 in the UK and the first 50 limited-edition Mission Ones likely to sell for $68,995 (£47,100). A cheaper version of the Mission One is due to be announced this summer.

UK bikers and electric vehicle fans will get their first glimpse of the Mission One at this summer's TTXGP, a motorbike race on the Isle of Man that bills itself as the world's first clean emissions grand prix. "Mission are really breaking the barrier on speed, and they also have a team of people that has a lot of experience in electric vehicles," said Azhar Hussain, TTXGP's founder.

Most of today's electric motorbikes in the UK are effectively scooters limited to speeds of 60mph or below, such as the high-end Vectrix VX-1 and budget Ego Street Scoota.

"YOU want to junk the car, but you're just too lazy to cycle"

Then this might just be the answer - the world's fastest electric bike.

Already hugely popular in China, electric bikes are now available in the UK.
Strict rules governing vehicles in the UK mean they can not go faster than 15 mph on a public road or they will require road tax.

So although a special 'boost' button is available to rocket you to a top speed of 25 mph on private property, it won't be legal to use it in traffic.

The battery takes five hours to charge - which the manufacturers boast will cost a grand total of 7p - and let's you cover 20 miles.

The catch is that the new creation will cost £2,000 - which is not far from the cost of a new scooter. It is not the lightest either - with a lithium ion battery weighing in at 6kg.

But the creators of the A2B bikes believe they will help encourage consumers to have more thought for the environment.

There's no doubt that it will turn heads. It's radical design and virtually noiseless motor caused more than one pedestrian to do a double take in our road test.

Already 21 million bikes have been sold in China in the last year and they are becoming rapidly more popular in Germany.

Last week Charlie Lloyd, cycling development officer from the London Cycling Campaign, said he was sceptical about its use in London.

He said: 'The disadvantage is that you have to charge it and the battery tends not to last very long if you go fast and push them hard.

They are also much heavier than a bike and three or four times as expensive.'

There was confusion over whether the new bicycle would comply with UK legislation because of the 'boost' button - giving it a top speed of 20mph.

Simon Brimley.the service manager for Ultra Motor UK said yesterday: "This type of transport is still in its infancy and will get more and more powerful as it goes on. In just the same way as electric cars will develop."

Fastest Electric Motorcycle : The KillaCycle®

The KillaCycle®, ridden by Scotty Pollacheck, made drag racing history AGAIN at Bandimere Speedway October 23rd, 2008. 7.89 seconds @ 168 MPH is a new official National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA) record and makes KillaCycle® the world’s quickest electric vehicle of any kind in the quarter mile! This was the very last run down the strip for this season at Bandimere. What a great way to finish the year.

Lightning struck twice on the mountain as we set the new mark for top speed in an earlier run that afternoon, 7.955 seconds@ 174.05 MPH. The M&H Racemaster tire really gripped the awesome track prep provided by Larry Crispe and the crew at Bandimere Speedway. We turned up the launch current to 1850 amps per motor, well beyond what we ever had before, and still did not slip the tire! (The all new temperature-controlled track surface provided the very best possible traction.)

Jim Husted at Hi-Torque Electric did his magic to the motors and they were able to withstand more RPM, current, and voltage from the battery pack than we thought was even possible. This is what delivered the “back half” performance that made the new top speed record possible.

The A123 Systems NanoPosphate batteries are changing the entire landscape for electric vehicles, and battery-powered devices in general.

The History Channel recorded it all that day. The footage will air early in 2009, perhaps February or March.

Watch this video from YouTube below!

Amayaku

Extreme Motorcycle : Dodge Tomahawk

Making Biodiesel From Waste Vegetable Oil

Make Your Own Biogas Generator

Biofuel : Third Generation Biofuels

Biofuel : Second Generation Biofuels

Biofuel : First Generation Biofuels

Biofuel

Fastest Plane in The World : The Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird

Fastest Boat In The World : Spirit of Australia

Fastest Solar-Powered Car

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Fastest Scooter : Go-Ped ESR 750 EX & Xtreme X600

The Mission One , Fastest Electric Motorbike

Fastest Electric Bicycle : A2B

Fastest Electric Motorcycle : The KillaCycle®